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Introduction
I have chosen to focus on the skill of identifying reference words when reading. Specifically, this essay will focus on identifying mainly anaphoric and cataphoric reference words and substitutions that are realized through pro-nominal forms. Research has shown that problems with identifying anaphoric and cataphoric references are a key problem with low-level ESL learners (Grabe, 2009, p.247). Also, in my experience teaching English for Academic Purposes, I have found that anaphoric references with abstract meanings can be a problem even for advanced students.
This should also be particularly relevant for the group of upper-elementary Thai students that I am currently teaching. They have difficulty in establishing relationships across sentences using reference words when reading.
1. Analysis
1.1 Reading Skills
Reading is a complex skill that is made up of many sub-skills and components. Researchers have long been trying to understand how these component skills work together. Much is still yet to be discovered, but it is clear that reading is a combination of lower-level processing skills and higher-level processing skills. Lower-level processes, often called “bottom-up” processes, include things like recognizing words, understanding the syntax, and understanding the meaning represented by the words and syntax. Higher level processes include things such as understanding the genre, the situation, inferencing, and using strategies to process the text. Both lower-level and higher-level processing interact with each other during reading (Grabe, 2012, p.21).
Higher level process include recognizing connections and cohesion between sentences. One of these higher-level processes involved in connecting sentences during reading is decoding the meaning of reference words.
1.2 Definition of Reference and Substitution
Reference words are words in a text that refer to other words or concepts, both inside and outside the text. The things that reference words refer to are called their referents. The most common types of reference words are pronouns, such as: he, we, it, this, that, these, those et cetera. Determiners, such as this, that, and the can also act as references. The definitive article the is usually classified as a type of reference, since it is used to signal familiarity with something that has previously been introduced in the text, or to the shared knowledge of the reader and writer (Thornbury, 2006, p.193)
Substitution is defined as: “replacing the noun phrase or a whole clause by a single word” (Thornbury, 2006, p.217). Examples include: one, none, same for nouns and for verbs, do/does, and not. There are technical linguistic reasons for classifying substitute words separately from references. For example, substitutes can be modified by adjectives, but reference words cannot (McCarthy, 2011, p.46). However both reference and substitution are ways of replacing a word or concept from the text, and many writers refer to them in conjunction.
Reference words are classified into 3 types: anaphoric, cataphoric, and exophoric. In English, the most common of these is anaphoric reference, which means a reference backwards in the text. Cataphoric reference means that the reference word comes before what it is in the text. This is less common in English, but it can be used for stylistic effect. Exophoric reference is when the reference is to something outside the text—for example, something in the real world. (Thornbury, 2005 p.23-24).
The reference words may not always have a one-to-one meaning with words elsewhere in the text. Particular anaphoric reference words like it and this are sometimes used to refer to long stretches of text or to refer to concepts that are present in the text, but hard to summarize in a direct quotation (McCarthy, 2011, p.36)
1.3 Reference Words in Reading Processes
Writers use reference words to avoid repetition. It is also a way to build cohesion in the text, since the reference words signal to the reader that the author is referring to something the reader should know, either because the author has referred to it before, or because it can be taken for granted from the context (Nuttall, 2005, p.86)
The most common type of reference, anaphoric reference, refers backwards in the reading text. However in most cases, readers do not physically look backwards to find the referent. Rather, as they read, readers build up a mental picture of what they are reading, and they connect the reference words with the mental picture, and not with the words on the page. Only in rare cases when the readers get confused do they need to look back in the text to find the meaning of a reference word (Thornbury, 2005 p.23).
An example comes from Grabe (2014):
1. The man could not find the map to the treasure.
2. He saw an edge of paper under the professor’s chair.
In line 1, the reader develops a mental image of “the man” in their working memory. In line 2, the reader connects “He” with the man, and their mental image of the man receives more activation. In this way, the reader connects reference words with the mental images that are currently in their working memory (p.40-41).
In determining which reference word goes with which meaning, readers use a combination of grammatical knowledge and knowledge of the situation. For grammar, each reference word has its own grammar that the reader can use to help decode its meaning. For example, “he” usually refer to a singular male (except in metaphorical usages) and “they” cannot have a singular reference (Nation, 2009, p.44). However, beyond these general guidelines, there is no syntactic rule which dictates which reference words must go with which referent. Readers are usually able to work out the meaning by context and by assuming Grice’s Cooperative Principle—that is, readers assume that each contribution is relevant to the situation. (In the example above, the reader assumes that “He” is referring to the man previously mentioned, and not to some other man). Although Grice’s Cooperative Principle was developed for conversation, Grabe notes that it applies just as much to reading texts, and maybe more so (2014, p.245). Nevertheless, if the writer is not careful, there can be grammatically well-formed sentences in which the meaning of the reference word is not clear (Nutall, 2005, p. 87).
Understanding or locating the referent for an anaphoric reference is thought to be one of the key skills of reading comprehension. Research has shown that good readers are easily able to locate the anaphoric reference, but poor readers have trouble with this, especially in complex sentences or when the referent is more distant. A number of studies have also shown that the ability to identify the referent of anaphoric references is correlated with reading comprehension (Grabe, 2009, p.247).
2. Issues
2.1 Difficulty With English Reference System
Learners may struggle with the English reference system if it is expressed differently in their own language. Thai learners struggle with the distinction between masculine and feminine pronouns (he/she) and singular/plural pronouns (he/they) (Smyth p.351-352). Other languages like Japanese will prefer to use either the kinship title or the direct name of the person rather than a reference pronoun (Thompson p.365)
2.2 Problems Identifying Reference Words
Although experienced readers take it for granted that the meaning of the reference word is always obvious, this cannot be assumed for low-level learners (Nutall, 2005, p.87). In fact, a number of studies have shown that low-level ESL readers have particular difficulties establishing the connection between anaphoric references and their referents (Grabe, 2009, p.247). This can be especially true in certain situations, which are detailed below.
2.3 Abstract Concepts
Wallace (1992) reports that students first beginning to read in English initially attach a literal meaning to reference words, which can confuse them if the reference is to a more abstract concept. The example given is that when a beginning reader encountered the word “they” in a text, the reader tried to identify the reference word with the characters in the story, not understanding that it was referring to the abstract concept of “women on their own” (p.12-13).
In more advanced academic texts, reference words like this or it can refer to a series of arguments being advanced in the text, and may not have a meaning that is easy to summarize (McCarthy, 2011, p.36). In my experience teaching English for Academic Purposes, I have found that even advanced learners have trouble identifying these types of references in academic texts.
2.4 Ambiguous References
In some cases, the writing is ambiguous, and it can be difficult for the reader to determine which of the elements in the text that a reference word refers to. An example comes from Nutall: “He handed her a letter. This gave her food for thought.” Does “this” refer to the letter, or the fact that he handed it to her? (2005, p.87). In other cases, the scope is unclear. An example comes from Nutall: “He burst out laughing and walked towards the door, which did not improve matters”. Does “which” refer to only the second action (“walked towards the door”) or the whole incident? (2005, p.87). Research has shown that the inability to identify complex antecedent referents is a problem with low-level ESL learners (Grabe 2009, p.246), but as the examples above shows, it could easily be confusing for higher level students as well.
2.5 Distance Between Reference Word and Referent
It is generally easy for readers to identify the reference word when the referent occurs in the same sentence or the immediate previous sentence. But occasionally reference words can be removed from their referent by multiple sentences, or even be located in a previous paragraph. In this case, it can be more difficult to identify simply by reference to the text (Nutall, 2005, p.87). This is particularly a problem with beginning readers who are attempting to parse the text sentence by sentence, and have not built up a mental schema of the whole situation. Again, research has shown that this inability to identify referents that are distantly located is a problem for less-skilled ESL readers (Grabe 2009, p.246). In these cases, the problem is further compounded by not being sure of where to look in the text. Because references can be anaphoric or cataphoric (or exophoric), readers will not know whether to look backwards or forwards. (Nutall, 2005, p.87)
3. Suggestions
3.1 Locating Reference Words
In Response to: students having trouble understanding the meaning of reference words.
Aim: For students to get practice locating reference words in a text.
Procedure: The procedure comes from Nation (2009), who recommends that after students have read a text for general comprehension, the teacher writes the reference words on the board with their line number. For example:
it (line 7)
these (line 10)
this (line 13)—et cetera.
The students then look in their text to find the referents. They check their answers by substituting the referents in the sentence to see if it still makes sense. The teacher can review the grammar of the reference words (e.g “they” refers to a plural noun) either before the exercise, or during feedback (p.44-45)
Evaluation: As Nation points out, one of the best things about this exercise is that it requires zero preparation beforehand, so it can easily be used repeatedly in multiple reading lessons. Nation talks about teaching the grammar of reference words, but he does not give guidance on how to teach students to identify the more abstract references. Nevertheless, through repeated cognitive practice and feedback from the teacher, the students should gradually become more aware about abstract references.
I have tried this exercise before in my own classes, and have found that students easily get bored with identifying all the reference words. Nutall (2005) points out that most reference words are very easy to identify from context, and it is only the problematic cases that require training (p.88). Therefore this activity might word best if it is focused only on the more problematic references.
3.2 Teaching Reference Words with Robin Hood
In response to: Students having trouble identifying anaphoric and cataphoric references
Aim: For students to be better able to identify anaphoric and cataphoric references
Procedure: This activity comes from Purnawati (2017). Students are given an enlarged text, and must underline the reference words, and then draw arrows to the referent. Students draw blue arrows for anaphoric reference, and red arrows for anaphoric reference. The students are told that they are playing “Robin Hood” by shooting arrows.
Evaluation: Again, it is not clear how students are being taught to identify referents, but with feedback from the teacher it could work as an awareness raising activity. The visual representation of arrows in the text should be engaging for visual learners. The different colors should also work well at showing students visually the different between anaphoric and cataphoric references. However it will only work with references that refer to nouns or noun phrases, and not references that summarize large section of text.
3.3 Students Write in the Reference Words
In response to: Students having trouble identifying reference words
Aim: For students to increase their confidence in recognizing reference words through supplying missing reference words in a text.
Procedure: The teacher gives students a text with some of the reference words removed. The students supply the missing reference words themselves. Low-level students do this with a list of the omitted items at the top of the page. Higher-level students can do the activity without the list.
Evaluation: Nutall (2005) includes this as a reading comprehension activity (p.88). The reasoning for including this as reading (instead of controlled grammar practice) appears to be that the students have to comprehend the text as a whole in order to write in the missing words. It also appears to be assuming that if students practice supplying the reference words, then this will increase their receptive recognition of them. A slightly different version of this activity is found in Thornbury (2005, p.29), but in Thornbury’s case, the pronouns are removed only after the teacher and the students have analysed the references together. In this second case, it is reviewing what the students have already been taught.
3.4 Special Practice With Reference Words Which Refer to an Extended Idea
In Response to: Students getting confused by reference words which refer to an extended idea
Aim: For students to get more practice identifying reference words which refer to an extended idea.
Procedure: This comes from Nutall (2005), who recommends that students get more practice with reference words this and which when they refer to an extended idea in the text. Nutall recommends drawing the students’ attention to several examples, and asking them to explain the reference. She suggests that this can be done with multiple choice alternative answers (p.88)
Evaluation: The activity provides metacognitive practice for students which can lead to raised awareness about the function of reference words. This should be combined with feedback from the teacher to help students realize how these references work in the text. The idea of giving students multiple choice answers to choose from provides some scaffolding until students develop the skill themselves.
Bibliography
Grabe, William. (2012). Reading in a Second Language: Moving from Theory to Practice. Cambridge University Press.
McCarthy, Michael. (2011). Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers. Cambridge Language Teaching Library.
Nation, I.S.P. (2009). Teaching ESL/EFL Reading and Writing. Routledge.
Nuttall, Christine. (2005). Teaching Reading Skills: In a Foreign Language. Macmillan Education.
Purnawati. (2017). Teaching Reference Words with “Robin Hood” Reading Activity. Journal of English Teaching and Research. Volume 2, Number 1, May 2017.
Smyth, David. (2001). Thai Speakers. p.343-356. In Learner English edited by Michael Swan and Bernard Smith. Cambridge University Press.
Thompson, Ian. (2001). Japanese Speakers. p.296-309. In Learner English edited by Michael Swan and Bernard Smith. Cambridge University Press.
Thornbury, Scott. (2005). Beyond the Sentence: Introducing Discourse Analysis. Macmillan Education.
Thornbury, Scott. (2006). An A-Z of ELT. Macmillan Education.
Wallace, Catherine. (1992). Reading. Oxford University Press.
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